Graphology
Graphology is the study of handwriting and its connection to behavior, and related data points. Critics cite the lack of supporting empirical evidence as a reason to not use it. Supporters point to the anecdotal evidence of thousands of positive testimonials as a reason to use it.
One may also say that graphology is an orthographical study, embracing the ideas that writing systems operate on style and form.
Basic tenets
Graphology is based upon a number of basic assertions:
The written movement is under the direct influence of the central nervous system. The form of the written movement is modified further by flexibly assembled coordinative structures in the hand, arm, and shoulder, which follow principles of dynamical systems.
The neurophysiological mechanisms which contribute to the written movement are related to conditions within the central nervous system and vary in accordance with them. The written strokes, therefore, reflect changes in the central nervous system such as development, influence of alcohol, and disease processes, such as Parkinson's disease.
One must examine the handwriting or drawing movements by considering them as movements organized by the central nervous system and produced under biomechanical and dynamical constraints. Given these considerations, graphologists proceed to evaluate the quality, overall size, regularity, and consistency of the graphic stroke in terms of psychological interpretations. Such interpretations vary according to the graphological theory applied by the analyst. Most schools of thought in graphology concur that one graphological sign can be a component of many different clusters, with each cluster having a different psychological interpretation.
Approaches to graphology
Integrative Graphology
This approach holds that specific stroke formations relate to personality traits. Most systems within this approach use a cluster of stroke formations, to score a specific personality trait. Systems that fall under this umbrella are: 'fixed signs', 'trait stroke', 'French System' and Graphoanalysisฎ.
It has been described as starting from the inside, and working to the outside.
Holistic Graphology
This is commonly, but incorrectly referred to as 'Gestalt Graphology'. Gestalt Graphology was a system of handwriting analysis developed circa 1915 in Germany.
In this approach (Holistic Graphology) a profile is constructed on the basis of Form, Movement and Space.
It has been described as starting from the outside, and working to the inside.
Symbolic Analysis
In this approach, one looks for symbols seen in the handwriting. This can be either Major symbolism, or Minor Symbolism.
o Major Symbolism is the meaning ascribed to the stroke, as it related to the page.
o Minor symbolism ascribes a meaning to the stroke, depending upon the picture that the stroke draws. For example, John Wayne's signature shows a blackened out portion, that represents his lung cancer.
This approach provides the theory that underlies both Holistic Graphology, and Integrative Graphology. Max Pulver is the best known exponent of this system.
Systems of handwriting analysis
Each approach to handwriting anlysis has spawned several different systems.
Integrative Graphology
o Graphoanalysis was the most influential system in the United States, between 1929 and 2000.
Holistic Graphology
o The Psychogram is the only system to hve been taught as part of an academic degree, at an accredited instutiton in the United States.
o The Personal Worth Chart was developed by Handwriting Consultants of San Diego during the early eighties.
o The Psychograph was developed by Leslie King during the seventies.
o Wittlich Character Diagram.
Other / Not yet classified
o Szondi
o Moretti
o Sisteme de Xandro.
Training
The University of Urbino (Italy) offers an MA (Graphology). The University of Rome (Italy) and Emerson University College (Beunos Aires, Argentina) offer a BA(Graphology). Those are the only accredited academic instutions in the world, that offer a degree in handwriting analysis.
Training the United States is through correspondence courses. Caveat Emptor. Both the quality, and legality of graphological courses varies tremendously. The situation in other countries is not much different.
Writing Systems
The majority of material in the field is orientated towards the Latin Writing system.
In Israel, it is a safe assumption that the Hebrew, Latin, and Cyrillic Writing systems will be covered.
For Eastern Europe, and Russia, it is a safe assumption that either the Latin and Cyrillic Writing system or only the Cyrillic Writing system will be covered.
For Western Europe, North America, and South America, it is a safe assumption that only the Latin Writing system will be covered.
For the rest of the world, the odds are that only the Latin writing will be covered. This may, but usually is not applicable to the local writing system.
Before taking any course, or certification, ensure that it is usable for the local writing system.
Certification
There is no certification that is generally recognized, either within, or without the field. Certifications are invariably linked to the organization one belongs to, and are no longer recognized when one resigns from the organization.
Vocabulary
"Every system of handwriting analysis has its own vocabulary. Even though two or more systems may share the same words, the meaning of those words is different. Except in very rare instances, the technical meaning of a word used by a handwriting analyst, and the common meaning are not congruent. Resentment, for example, in common usage, means to feel or exhibit annoyance. In Graphoanalysis, the term indicates a fear of imposition."
Validity
The perceived validity of graphology was significantly diminished in early 2005, when samples of handwriting purportedly taken from Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, at the World Economic Summitt in Davos were analysed and the results were published. Several graphologists have cast doubt on the leadership skills and ability to complete tasks of the writer. It subsequently emerged that the samples were in fact from Bill Gates of Microsoft, one of the world's most successful businessmen.
Going through the published research, Crumbaugh, James C & Stockholm, Emilie (1977) ("Validation of Graphoanalysis by 'Global' or 'Holistic' Method." Perceptual And Motor Skills April 1977, 44(2), 403-410.) stands out as being one of the few studies that supports handwriting analysis.
Far more common are studies such as Ben-Shakar, G., Bar-Hillel, M., Blum, Y., Ben-Abba, E & Flug, A., Journal of Applied Psychology, 1986 (71), 645-653, which indicates that graphology has little or no validity.
The field is rife with practitioners of one approach calling practitioners of the other approach charlatans, frauds, and the like. Carroll v State [276 Ark 160; 634 SW 2d 99, 101-102 (1982)] being one demonstration of what each side resorts to in the courtroom.
Applications of graphology
The most common applications of graphology are:
Employment profiling
o Business Compatibility
Marital compatibility
Psychological analysis
Medical diagnosis
Jury Screening
Employment profiling
A company takes a writing sample provided by an applicant, and proceeds to do a personality profile, matching the congruency of the applicant with the ideal psychological profile of employees in the position.
A graphological report is meant to be used in conjunction with other tools, such as comprehensive background checks and practical demonstration of work skills. Of the traditional tools used in the hiring process, the only one that graphology can replace, is the job interview.
Research in employment suitability has ranged from complete failure (Lighton, R E A Graphological Examination of the Handwriting of Air Pilots Thesis in the Faculty of Arts: University of Pretoria: 1934) to guarded success (Luca, E S "Major Aptitudes and Personality Chracteristics of 42 Dental Students as Evaluated Through their Handwriting." New York Journal of Dentistry 1973, 43, 281 - 283).
The use of graphology in the hiring process has been criticized on ethical ground (Daryl Koehn "Handwriting Analysis In Pre-Employment Screening" The Online Journal of Ethics Vol. 1 * No. 1 * Article 1) and on legal grounds (Julie Spohn "The Legal Implications of Graphology" Washington University Law Quarterly Vol. 73 * No. 3 * Fall 1997).
Business compatibility
This is an additional service offered by some handwriting analysts. The focus of these reports can be one, or more of the following:
Company-wide
This is a report the describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the company.
The average company employee
For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire company are used, to create three hypothetical employees. The individual is then compared to these three employees, with the focus being how good a fit the individual is.
Division wide
This is a report that describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the division.
The average division employee
For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire division are used, to create three hypothetical employees. The individual is then compared to these three employees, with focus being how well the individual will fit into the existing company psychodynamic profile.
Unit wide
This is a report the describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the unit.
The average unit employee
For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire unit are used, to create three hypothetical employees. Those are then compared to the applicant, with a focus on how good a fit the individual is.
The unit manager / Co-worker
This explores the differences in personal style between a manager/co-worker and potential employee. The end result is on how each can maximize productivity and minimize personal friction.
Composite reports
This explores the difference in personal style between every employee in a group. The idea is for each member of the group to learn not only their own strengths and weakness, but also those of their co-workers, and how they can more harmoniously work together. The resulting reports not only deal with the individual on a one-to-one level within the group, but also each individual as a part of a group of three, four, five, etc people within the group.
The content of these reports can range from a simple perspectrograph, to a four wheel Wittlich Diagram and accompanying twenty five thousand word analysis.
Psychological analysis
These reports can range from a ten item check off list to a 10 000 word report on the makeup of an individual from the perspective of Freudian Psychoanalysis, Transactional Analysis, or another personality theory.
A major value of a graphological analysis lies in the increased understanding of people and the ability consequently to enjoy improved relationships both personally and professionally. It complements psychometric assessment because they each come from different directions according to the International Graphology Association.
Marital compatibility
In its simplest form, only sexual expression, and sexual response are examined. At its most complex, every aspect of an individual is examined for how it affects the other individual(s). The basic theory is that knowing, and understanding how each other are different, any commitment that is made, will be more enduring. Whilst these are typically done for couples, it is not unknown for a polyamourus group to obtain a report, prior to the commitment ceremony of a new individual, into the group.
Medical diagnosis
Medical graphology is probably the most controversial aspect of handwriting analysis. On one end, are research studies in which handwriting is used as one datapoint in making a clinical diagnosis. On the other end of claims made by graphologists, which have neither research, nor theory to support them.
Alfred Kanfer published several papers whose implication was that cancer could be detected using handwriting analysis, prior to the then standard medical tests. Subsequent studies failed to support his findings.
Jury screening
A graphologist is given handwriting samples of a prospective jury and determines who should be struck, based upon their alleged personality profile. After the trial has begun, the graphologist advises counsel on how to slant their case, for the most favorable response from the jury.
Forensic document examination
This discipline is better known as questioned document examination within the judicial system. This is used to determine whether or not a document was written by the person who is thought to have written it. As such, this is not an aspect of graphology.
Goodtitle Drevett v Braham 100 Eng Rep 1139 (1792) is reportedly the first case at which the testimony of a questioned document examiner was accepted.
Graphology in court testimony
Cameron v Knapp, 137 Misc. 2d 373, 520 N.Y.S.2d 917 (Sup. Ct. N.Y. Co. 1987) (handwriting expert may testify as to the authenticity of a writing but not as to an individual's physical or mental condition based on a handwriting sample) stands as current U.S. case law for the rejection of graphology as psychological testimony.
Carroll v State [276 Ark 160; 634 SW 2d 99, 101-102 (1982)] probably will be remembered for reasons why no graphologists should be allowed to testify. Both sides demonstrated that graphology has no scientific basis. In doing so, they also displayed a distinct lack of professional courtesy to members of the other side.
Divination
Some individuals believe that one can tell the future from handwriting analysis. Others believe that a handwriting analyst can provide spiritual guidance on situations that they face. Reasons why these beliefs are false range from the complete lack of either scientific or anecdotal evidence, to the application of Aristotlean logic to any of the numerous (and mutually incompatible) theories of handwriting analysis.
The code of ethics for the International Graphoanalysis Society prohibits the practice of anything related to the occult.
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